Vaginal Examination-Injury to the Perineum during Childbirth-Pudendal Nerve Block-Area of Anesthesia-Indications-Transvaginal Procedure-Perineal Procedure

Vaginal Examination

Digital examination of the vagina may provide the physician with much valuable information concerning the health of the vaginal walls, the uterus, and the surrounding structures

Injury to the Perineum during Childbirth

The perineal body is a wedge of fibromuscular tissue that lies between the lower part of the vagina and the anal canal. It is held in position by the insertion of the perineal muscles and by the attachment of the levator ani muscles. In the female, it is a much larger structure than in the male, and it serves to support the posterior wall of the vagina. Damage by laceration during childbirth can be followed by permanent weakness of the pelvic floor.

 Few women escape some injury to the birth canal during delivery. In most, this is little more than an abrasion of the posterior vaginal wall. Spontaneous delivery of the child with the patient unattended can result in a severe tear of the lower third of the posterior wall of the vagina, the perineal body, and overlying skin. In severe tears, the lacerations may extend backward into the anal canal and damage the external sphincter. In these cases, it is imperative that an accurate repair of the walls of the anal canal, vagina, and perineal body be undertaken as soon as possible.

In the management of childbirth, when it is obvious to the obstetrician that the perineum will tear before the baby’s head emerges through the vaginal orifice, a planned surgical incision is made through the perineal skin in a posterolateral direction to avoid the anal sphincters. This procedure is known as an episiotomy. Breech deliveries and forceps deliveries are usually preceded by an episiotomy
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Pudendal Nerve Block

Area of Anesthesia

The area anesthetized is the skin of the perineum; this nerve block does not, however, abolish sensation from the anterior part of the perineum, which is innervated by the ilioinguinal nerve and the genitofemoral nerve. Needless to say, it does not abolish pain from uterine contractions that ascend to the spinal cord via the sympathetic afferent nerves.

 

Indications

During the second stage of a difficult labor, when the presenting part of the fetus, usually the head, is descending through the vulva, forceps delivery and episiotomy may be necessary
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Transvaginal Procedure

The bony landmark used is the ischial spine . The index finger is inserted through the vagina to palpate the ischial spine. The needle of the syringe is then passed through the vaginal mucous membrane toward the ischial spine. On passing through the sacrospinous ligament, the anesthetic solution is injected around the pudendal nerve .

Perineal Procedure

The bony landmark is the ischial tuberosity . The tuberosity is palpated subcutaneously through the buttock, and the needle is introduced into the pudendal canal along the medial side of the tuberosity. The canal lies about 1 in. (2.5 cm) deep to the free surface of the ischial tuberosity. The local anesthetic is then infiltrated around the pudendal nerve.

Paralysis of the Diaphragm-Sympathetic Trunk in the Treatment of Raynaud Disease-Spinal Anesthesia and the Sympathetic Nervous System

Paralysis of the Diaphragm

The phrenic nerve may be paralyzed because of pressure from malignant tumors in the mediastinum. Surgical crushing or sectioning of the phrenic nerve in the neck, producing paralysis of the diaphragm on one side, was once used as part of the treatment of lung tuberculosis, especially of the lower lobes. The immobile dome of the diaphragm rests the lung

  

Sympathetic Trunk in the Treatment of Raynaud Disease

Preganglionic sympathectomy of the 2nd and 3rd thoracic ganglia can be performed to increase the blood flow to the fingers for such conditions as Raynaud disease. The sympathectomy causes vasodilatation of the arterioles in the upper limb.

Spinal Anesthesia and the Sympathetic Nervous System

A high spinal anesthetic may block the preganglionic sympathetic fibers passing out from the lower thoracic segments of the spinal cord. This produces temporary vasodilatation below this level, with a consequent fall in blood pressure.

Intercostal Nerve Block-Area of Anesthesia-Indications-Procedure

Intercostal Nerve Block

Area of Anesthesia

The skin and the parietal pleura cover the outer and inner surfaces of each intercostal space, respectively; the 7th to 11th intercostal nerves supply the skin and the parietal peritoneum covering the outer and inner surfaces of the abdominal wall, respectively. Therefore, an intercostal nerve block will also anesthetize these areas. In addition, the periosteum of the adjacent ribs is anesthetized

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Indications

Intercostal nerve block is indicated for repair of lacerations of the thoracic and abdominal walls, for relief of pain in rib fractures, and to allow pain-free respiratory movements.

Procedure

To produce analgesia of the anterior and lateral thoracic and abdominal walls, the intercostal nerve should be blocked before the lateral cutaneous branch arises at the midaxillary line. The ribs may be identified by counting down from the 2nd (opposite sternal angle) or up from the 12th. The needle is directed toward the rib near the lower border and the tip comes to rest near the subcostal groove, where the local anesthetic is infiltrated around the nerve. Remember that the order of structures lying in the neurovascular bundle from above downward is intercostal vein, artery, and nerve and that these structures are situated between the posterior intercostal membrane of the internal intercostal muscle and the parietal pleura. Furthermore, laterally, the nerve lies between the internal intercostal muscle and the innermost intercostal muscle.